When, in 1816, John Keats began reading an Elizabethan translation of Homer, he became so enthralled that he stayed up all night. By morning, he had written the famous sonnet that includes the couplet:

Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken.

He was referring to the astronomer William Herschel, who had spotted the planet Uranus 35 years earlier. Keats imagined a moment of instantaneous, rapturous recognition – but in reality, prolonged controversy clouded the planet’s identification.

While Uranus is now firmly accepted in the astronomical lexicon, deciding what counts as a planet is not straightforward. Herschel regarded astronomy as celestial botany, explaining that: ‘The heavens … resemble a luxuriant garden, which contains the great variety of productions in different flourishing beds.’ Like a collector of rare plants, his job was to classify the heavenly bodies and place them into groups – but there is no single correct way of doing that.

Centuries of tradition

Although ancient astronomers lacked telescopes, they detected five bright objects regularly gliding through the myriad of stars scattered across the skies. Now known as planets from the Greek word for ‘wanderer’, they were given the names of Roman gods – Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. According to the Aristotelian geocentric system that prevailed in Europe until the early 17th century, seven heavenly bodies – the sun, the moon, and the five planets – revolve around Earth in circles, God’s perfect shape. That quasi-magical number meshed neatly with the days of the week, the alchemical stages of purification, and the steps up to King Solomon’s temple.

In the absence of light pollution the skies seemed black and close, so any celestial newcomer was more readily visible than now. While the planets circled serenely and eternally through the pure aether of the celestial realm, comets and other transient visitors occasionally disturbed the heavens. Collectively known as meteors, they belonged to the changeable sublunar region between the moon and Earth. In particular, the comets that flared across the skies were often interpreted as divine messengers reporting God’s displeasure with a sinful world.

After astronomical diagrams had been inverted to place the sun rather than Earth at the centre of the universe, the number of orbiting bodies dropped to six – five traditional planets plus Earth. In Joseph Wright of Derby’s luminous painting of an astronomical demonstration, six small balls on sticks circle around the central lamp, which represents the sun and illuminates the faces of the attentive spectators. By then, Isaac Newton had proved that comets orbit elliptically around the sun like planets, yet they were still imbued with symbolic portent: Mary Shelley boasted that her birth had been heralded by the first comet to be identified by a woman – Herschel’s sister and collaborator, Caroline.

Restoring the number seven

Seeing is not the same as understanding: well before Herschel, other observers had already spotted Uranus, but failed to appreciate the evidence. The earliest candidate is the Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who may have seen the planet around 2,000 years earlier. After powerful telescopes were invented, sightings became more frequent – but Herschel was the first to identify the mysterious star as a planet.

Even so, Herschel was slow to claim his prize. At that stage, he was a relatively unknown immigrant from Hanover, a musician who obliged his sister Caroline to sacrifice her singing career and accommodate his growing obsession with astronomy. Unlike their contemporaries, the Herschels built reflecting telescopes with large mirrors instead of lenses: one of her more unpleasant tasks was sieving horse manure to make a smooth bed for casting the metal. On 13 March 1781, after gazing at the stars through a home-made telescope installed in their back garden, Herschel noted tentatively that he might have found a comet. Two weeks later, he felt more confident: ‘Saw the Diameter of the Comet extremely well defined … a glorious sight.’ He tracked it for weeks, but it was only months later that he acknowledged his error: in the absence of any radiant tail, this must be a planet.

Herschel refused to give his new planet a mythological name, behaving instead like an imperial explorer. When James Cook landed at Tahiti, he appropriated it as British territory by naming it King George’s Island – and correspondingly, since Herschel relied heavily on royal patronage, he dubbed his new planet King George’s star, Georgium Sidus. As he explained to his friend Sir Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Society and a royal confidant, they lived in a ‘more philosophical era’ than the ancients, and should choose a label that placed the discovery in its right chronological setting. Sycophancy worked: Herschel was appointed court astronomer and even secured a pension for Caroline, thus making her the first salaried scientific woman.

Unsurprisingly, astronomers from other countries disagreed, and bitter disputes dragged on for almost 70 years. Several Roman deities were proposed, including Neptune and Minerva, but the strongest voice belonged to the German Johann Bode. He pointed out that since Saturn was the father of Jupiter, it would be appropriate to choose Uranus, the father of Saturn, for the next planet. Uranus is Greek rather than Roman (which would be Caelus) but the name stuck – except in British almanacs, which clung on to Georgium Sidus until 1850.
 

Seven planets and counting

According to ideological accounts, scientists are engaged in a disinterested search for truth. Various undignified tussles over planets tell a different story: in repeated episodes, rival astronomers competed for personal and national glory. Another international row soon erupted – this time between France and Britain – after it became clear that Uranus was not behaving as predicted. Either the equations were wrong, or it was being pulled out of its expected orbit by an unknown large body, later identified as Neptune.

Galileo’s original drawings reveal that he had spotted Neptune, but failed to pick up the fact that it was slowly moving. More surprisingly, even when astronomers knew what they were looking for, detecting the planet proved tricky. The British contender, John Couch Adams, began the race, ploughing through all the observations he could get hold of to predict the suspected planet’s location. Armed with Adams’ estimates, the director of the Cambridge Observatory, James Challis, tried but failed to pinpoint its location.

In the meantime, the French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier had carried out his own calculations, and although he was unable to rouse much local interest, he persuaded an observer in Berlin to take a look. This search was more successful: the planet was located, and Le Verrier duly claimed the accolade of discoverer. But then Challis reappeared, announcing that after analysing his data more thoroughly, he now realised that he had detected Neptune a year before Le Verrier’s ally in Berlin. So Adams and his supporters promptly announced that this was a British victory.

Eventually, an international consensus was reached: Le Verrier and Adams deserved equal credit. But by the early 20th century, it had become clear that Neptune was also deviating from its anticipated orbit – and a similar cycle of claims and counter-claims emerged as astronomers searched for a ninth planet still further away from the sun.

This time the action took place at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona. Its founder and director, Percy Lowell, launched a search for ‘Planet X’, but he died in 1916 believing his quest had failed. In a déjà vu scenario, it later emerged that there had apparently been earlier sightings, which had gone unnoticed. Lowell’s widow entered the fray, launching a ten-year legal battle with the Observatory about Lowell’s reputation. Eventually, the new director handed to a junior the unenviable task of comparing pairs of photographs to detect any possible movement.

The project took nearly a year – but success finally arrived in 1930 when a planet smaller than Earth’s moon was detected. Some 150 suggestions for the new planet’s name flooded in, but the prize was scooped by an 11-year-old English schoolgirl, who nominated Pluto, god of the underworld: conveniently, his name begins with Percy Lowell’s initials.

War of the other worlds

As soon as Pluto was identified, astronomers began searching for more planets. As instruments improved, more and more celestial objects were detected beyond Neptune, some even tinier than Pluto. Rather than calling each one a planet, astronomers grouped them into the Kuiper belt, a massive rotating disc of remnants from the formation of the solar system. In 2006, Pluto was relegated to the new category of ‘dwarf planet’. Unsurprisingly, some astronomers disagree: the planetary wars are not yet over.

Patricia Fara is an Emeritus Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Her most recent book is Life after Gravity: The London Career of Isaac Newton (Oxford University Press).

Conny Waters – AncientPages.com – Early humans in the Ethiopian highlands selected specific rocks for tool-making purposes as far back as 1.5 million years.

Now, an international team of researchers focuses on this important subject of this early society’s practices.

The nature and suitability of stone tools is investigated and evaluated through experimental tests on a long bone in the TraCEr laboratory (left) and (top right). Bottom right: map with the location of the study objects (Melka Wakena). © Photos by Eduardo Paixão, map by Tegenu Gossa

This ancient practice reflects an advanced level of cognitive ability and environmental adaptation among these early hominins, indicating their capacity for strategic resource utilization and technological innovation.

The findings of the team, as published in the journal PLOS ONE, offer valuable insights into the cognitive capabilities and technological expertise of our ancestors.

Melka Wakena is a significant prehistoric site complex situated in the highlands of Ethiopia. It is located along the banks of the Wabe River, which also serves as an artificial reservoir. It was there, at the Melka Wakena, scientists have uncovered a diverse array of tools.

Experimental setup for the experiments on the rocks: SMARTTESTER® from Inotec AP GmbH, adapted by Walter Gneisinger in the TraCEr laboratory in MONREPOS. Copyright: Eduardo Paixão / Walter Gneisinger, : Paixão et al., 2025, PLOS ONE, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) © Eduardo Paixão / Walter Gneisinger / Paixão et al., 2025, PLOS ONE, CC-BY 4.0

This discovery provides valuable insights into the technological capabilities and cultural practices of early human societies in this region.

The question is: why were certain rocks chosen over others? The answer is found in the unique properties of these stones. By employing cutting-edge methods, such as robotic experiments and high-resolution imaging techniques, the team was able to unravel this intriguing question.

The analyses revealed that the people of that era deliberately aimed to achieve a balance between the functionality and durability of their tools. This approach highlights their understanding of the importance of creating tools that were not only effective in use but also long-lasting.

“Our research shows that the material properties of stones – such as suitability, quality and durability – were crucial for selection by early hominins,” explains study leader Dr. Eduardo Paixão from the University of Algarve, Portugal. He also added that these ancient people understood their environment precisely and made conscious decisions.

The rocks were then scanned (A) and examined under a microscope (B) to make the effects of the impacts visible (B). The impact points are also visible to the naked eye (D). © Eduardo Paixão / TraCEr / Paixão et al., 2025, PLOS ONE, CC-BY 4.0

Dr. João Marreiros, head of the TraCEr laboratory, additionally explains that “the conscious selection of materials influenced the surface changes of the tools. This shows that the differences in archaeological finds are not random.”

According to Prof. Erella Hovers and Dr. Tegenu Gossa, who led the excavations at the site of Melka Wakena, their research open up new perspectives for understanding technological innovations in early human history.

This research is the result of a collaboration between the Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution Human Behaviour (ICArEHB) of the University of Algarve, the TraCEr laboratory and IMPALA laboratory of LEIZA in Germany and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

The researchers used technologies developed in the Laboratory for Use-Tracing Research and Controlled Experiments (TraCEr). This laboratory is part of the Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioral Evolution MONREPOS, a facility of the Leibniz Centre for Archaeology (LEIZA).

Source

Paper

Eduardo Paixão et al, Exploring early Acheulian technological decision-making: A controlled experimental approach to raw material selection for percussive artifacts in Melka Wakena, Ethiopia, PLOS ONE (2025). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0314039

Written by Conny Waters – AncientPages.com Staff Writer

Conny Waters – AncientPages.com – The Massacre of Glencoe occurred in Glen Coe, located in the Highlands of Scotland, on February 13, 1692. Approximately 38 members and associates of Clan MacDonald of Glencoe were killed by Scottish government forces.

This tragic event was reportedly due to their failure to pledge allegiance to the new monarchs, William III and Mary II. Among those killed were Clan Chief Alasdair Ruadh “MacIain” MacDonald and his wife.

Recently, archaeologists conducting excavations in the Scottish Highlands have discovered significant artifacts that provide further insights into these historical events.

Treasure Trow Of Untold Stories Hidden For Centuries Beneath The Earth

Supported by the National Trust for Scotland, a dedicated team of archaeologists and students from the University of Glasgow, along with various volunteers, have embarked on their second year of excavations in Glencoe. Their goal is to deepen our understanding of this pivotal period in Scottish history, particularly the events leading up to the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692.

Glencoe Massacre Memorial. Credit: Kim Traynor – CC BY-SA 3.0

The archaeological work at the abandoned township of Arhnacon has revealed numerous artifacts that offer valuable insights into daily life in 17th-century Glencoe. Among these discoveries are German and French pottery, intricately decorated knife handles, loom weights used for weaving, shoe buckles, and fragments of tobacco pipes.

On the night when tragedy struck during the massacre, MacDonald of Achnacon, a cousin to the Clan Chief, was hosting a gathering that included his brother MacDonald of Achtriochtan.

They drank and gambled into the early hours until gunfire from government troops abruptly halted them at 5 a.m., shattering windows and doors.

Recent excavations have uncovered MacDonald of Achnacon’s turf-walled house. Notably among their findings was a collection of 17th-century bronze coins, possibly remnants from gambling on that ill-fated night, as well as evidence suggesting an escape attempt: a bent plaid pin and two pieces from lead musket balls found just outside his home. These items may mark where MacDonald managed to flee after shedding his cloak over his attackers before disappearing into the darkness.

Dr. Edward Stewart, Co-Director of Excavations and recent PhD graduate from the University of Glasgow highlights the significance of these artifacts in offering insights into the human narratives linked to major historical events. He noted that by examining the dwellings and archaeological findings in Glencoe, researchers can gain a deeper understanding not only of the tragic 1692 Massacre but also of the daily lives of people residing and working in Glencoe during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Achnacon drone photo, showing excavation trenches and the village’s agricultural land. Photo: Aris Palyvos

“Recent discoveries – both in Achnacon this year and the Summerhouse of MacIain in 2023 – allow us to connect with the people who once called this glen ‘home’ in a profoundly personal way. We’re not just uncovering the grand events of history, but the individual human stories that were so painfully disrupted. These help to give intimate insights into the lives and livelihoods, diets, beliefs and experiences of those who lived in this landscape over 300 years ago,” Dr. Stewart said.

In addition to the relics discovered within the ruins of a 17th-century dwelling, the team’s landscape surveys have provided valuable insights into the longstanding relationship between Achnacon’s inhabitants and their environment. According to the archaeology team, this deep connection with the land underscores the severe impact that both the massacre and subsequent clearances would have had on the local community.

University of Glasgow undergraduate student Alexander McClure holds a 17th-century plate fragment he has just discovered. Photo: Derek Alexander

“It’s abundantly clear that the people of Achnacon were totally dependent on this land. Understanding that relationship allows us to empathize more fully with the trauma they endured when their world was so violently upended,” Professor Michael Given, Professor of Landscape Archaeology and Co-Director of the University of Glasgow’s archaeological project in Glencoe said.

Derek Alexander, Head of Archaeology at the National Trust for Scotland, which manages the Glencoe National Nature Reserve, explains that the remnants of 17th and 18th-century townships in Glencoe are frequently understated. This subtlety is due to materials from these structures often being repurposed for subsequent buildings, dykes, and sheepfolds.

Excavations of the kailyard, looking up Glencoe. Photo: Derek Alexander.

“The better-preserved historic sites lie further into the glen away from the modern village at the lochside. Achnacon township displays the remains of four or five buildings, a kailyard or small kitchen garden and traces of rig cultivation.

It lies within sight of the replica turf house constructed a few years ago at the National Trust for Scotland visitor centre and can be reached along the length of a newly-built walking and cycle track, the Glencoe Greenway.

Dr. Edward Stewart holds the copper alloy plaid pin found just outside the 17th-century house at Achnacon. Photo: Michael Given

Step by step we are gaining a better understanding of where and how people lived in the glen and enabling visitors today to engage in new ways with the landscape,” Alexander, Excavations Co-Director said.

As the Glencoe Archaeology Project progresses in the coming years, the team remains dedicated to reviving these lost voices. By conducting ongoing excavations, performing landscape studies, and organizing public engagement events, they aim to illuminate a history that has been largely overshadowed by the events of 1692.

See also: More Archaeology News

In June 2025 excavations will resume at the settlement of Achnacon to uncover more of this township’s lost stories.

“These artefacts may be small and unassuming, but they represent the very real human experiences that unfolded here. The archaeology team feel it is our responsibility to ensure these stories are told, and their legacy is not forgotten,” Dr. Stewart said.

Written by Conny Waters – AncientPages.com Staff Writer